B Cell Activation in HIV Infection

B Cell Activation in HIV Infection During HIV infection, B cells can be activated by HIV virions, plasmacytoid dendritic cells, infected macrophages and CD40 ligands. Mannose binding lectin (MBL), a C-type lectin, is in a complex with the MASP (MBL-associated serine proteases) enzyme and is involved in recognising and binding carbohydrates on pathogens (e.g. HIV envelope protein gp120 is highly glycosylated). When the carbohydrates are recognised, MBL activates the enzyme activity of MASP which causes the activation of the complement system by cleaving C2 and C4 complements resulting in the formation of C3 convertase. This activation and formation of C3 convertase is known as the alternative pathway of the complement system. C3 complement is cleaved by the C3 convertase enzyme and C3 fragments (C3d/C3dg, iC3b) are formed from this breakdown. These fragments are deposited onto the HIV virion surface. HIV IC (immune complexes) interact with CD21 (complement receptor) on B cells and C3 fragments acts as a mediator in the IC-CD21 interaction. CD21 is involved in the activation of B cells and a constant IC-CD21 activation could trigger the polyclonal a ctivation of B cells in HIV viremia. (1-4) Plasma dendritic cells (pDCs) express TLR9, TLR7, CD4, CCR5, CXCR4 and MCLR receptors. TLR7 receptor is stimulated by its interaction with viral ssRNA and TLR9 by its interaction with unmethylated DNA motifs of the viral genome. Stimulation of these receptors leads to the activation of intracellular pathways both of which involves the activation of the adaptor protein, MyD88. The MyD88-IRF7 pathway involves the activation of IRF7 by MyD88 which goes on to regulate the gene transcription of Type I IFN, leading to Type I IFN production by pDCs. NF-kB is also activated by MyD88 and causes the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-ÃŽ ± and IL-6 by upregulating their gene transcription in pDCs. IFN-ÃŽ ± (a Type l IFN) induces the activation and differentiation of B cells into plasmablasts. The presence of IL-6 causes differentiation of plasmablasts into antibody secreting plasma cells. TNF-ÃŽ ± is involved in the polyclonal activation of B cells. The production of Type I IFN upregulates the mRNA expression of two cytokines involved in stimulating B cells in pDCs. These cytokines cause the activation, proliferation and survival of B cells, immunoglobulin class- switching and are known as BAFF (B cell activating factor) and APRIL (a proliferation-inducing ligand). Both cytokines belong to the tumour necrosis factor (TNF) ligand family. BAFF interacts with B cells by binding to the BAFF receptor (BAFFR) located on the surface of B cells. Plasmacytoid dendritic cells also activate B cells through the interaction of their CD70 ligand with the CD27 receptor on B cells, causing proliferation and differentiation of memory cells into plasma cells. HIV infected macrophages, activate B cells by Nef protein indirectly when it is taken up and expressed de novo by infected macrophages. HIV Nef induces the production of ferritin through the NF-ÃŽ ºB pathway causing gene transcription and releasing ferritin from the infected macrophages. Adequate production of ferritin induces proliferation of resting B cells into antibody secreting plasma cells by upregulating the expression of B cell gene. This activation of B cells can lead to hypergammaglobulinemia the increase in the level of gamma globulins (immunoglobulins) in the blood. (1,20) Figure 1 shows adequate levels of ferritin can lead to increase in immunoglobulin (Ig) levels in the plasma (hypergammaglobulinemia). To determine whether there is a correlation between hypergammaglobulinemia (B cell dysfunction) and plasma ferritin level in HIV infection. Plasma Ig levels were compare to plasma ferritin levels of 83 infected HIV infected people. The results obtained show that there is a positive correlation between plasma ferritin levels and plasma levels of IgA, IgG and IgM in the HIV infected individuals studied. As plasma ferritin levels increased, plasma IgA, IgG and IgM levels also increased generally. (20) The outer layer (envelope) of HIV virions contains viral protein, gp120, which can directly bind to receptors on B cells. Activation of B cells by gp120 causes polyclonal immunoglobulin class switching. This occurs in the presence of BAFF which binds to its receptor on B cells, BAFFR and gp120 binds to MCLRs (mannose-binding C-type lectin receptors) on B cells. The interaction causes IgM to switch to IgG and IgA through the upregulation in the expression of the activation-induced cytidine deaminase, an enzyme involved in class-switch DNA recombination. The HIV gp120 has also been found to inhibit the production of IFN-ÃŽ ± by pDCs by affecting the activation of the TL9 pathway involved in its production. The protein, gp120 binds to CD4, CCR5, CRCR4 and MCLR receptors on pDCs and its binding to CD4 and MCLR has been found to not produce IFN-ÃŽ ± by the TLR9 pathway. This prevents the activation of B cells by the TLR9 pathway through the release of IFN-ÃŽ ±. (7,9,10,21) B cells can also be activated by the interaction between CD40 receptors on B cells and CD40 ligands on T cells in the presence of cytokines (e.g. IL-10). This interaction activates the B cells to differentiate and undergo immunoglobulin class switching by causing class-switch recombination. Class-switch recombination is induced by the activation of NF-kB transcription factor which induces the gene expression of activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID). However, during HIV infection CD4+ T cells are targets for the HIV virus so number of CD4+ T cells are depleted suppressing this activation of B cells. (22,23) References: Moir, S., Malaspina, A., Li, Y., Chun, T., Lowe, T., Adelsberger, J., Baseler, M., Ehler, L., Liu, S., Davey Jr., R., Mican, J. and Fauci, A. (2000) ‘B Cells of HIV-1–infected Patients Bind Virions through CD21–Complement Interactions and Transmit Infectious Virus to Activated T Cells’, The Journal of Experimental Medicine, 192 (5), pp.637-645. Jakubik, J., Saifuddin, M., Takefman, D. and Spear, G. (2000) ‘Immune Complexes Containing Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Primary Isolates Bind to Lymphoid Tissue B Lymphocytes and Are Infectious for T Lymphocytes’, Journal Of Virology, 74(1), pp.552-555. Eisen, S., Dzwonek, A. and Klein, NJ. (2008) Mannose-binding lectin in HIV infection, Future Virol., 3(3), pp.225-233 Haurum , JS., Thiel, S., Jones, IM., Fischer, PB., Laursen, SB. and Jensenius, JC. (1993) ‘Complement activation upon binding of mannan-binding protein to HIV envelope glycoproteins.’, AIDS, 7(10), pp.1307-1313 Muraguchi, A., Hirano, T., Tang, B., Matsuda, T., Horii, Y, Nakajima, K. and Kishimoto, T. (1998) ‘ The Essential Role Of B Cell Stimulatory Factor 2 (Bsf-2/Il-6) For The Terminal Differentiation Of B Cells’, J Exp Med, 167, pp.332-344. Jego, G., Palucka, A., Blanck, J., Chalouni, C., Pascual, V. and Banchereau, J. (2003) ‘Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells Induce Plasma Cell Differentiation through Type I Interferon and Interleukin 6’, Immunity, 19, pp.225-234. Chung, N., Matthews, K., Klasse, P., Sanders, R. and Moore, J. (2012) ‘HIV-1 gp120 impairs the induction of B cell responses by TLR9-activated plasmacytoid dendritic cells’, J Immunol, 189(11), pp. 5257- 5265. Shaw, J., Wang, Y., Ito, T., Arima, K. and Liu, Y. (2010) ‘Plasmacytoid dendritic cells regulate B-cell growth and differentiation via CD70.’, Blood, 115, pp.3051–3057. He, B., Qiao, X., Klasse, P., Chiu, A., Chadburn, A., Knowles, D., Moore, J. and Cerutti, A. (2006) ‘HIV-1 envelope triggers polyclonal Ig class switch recombination through a CD40-independent mechanism involving BAFF and C-type lectin receptors.’ J. Immunol, 176, pp.3931–3941. Martinelli, E., Cicala, C., Van Ryk, D., Goode, D., Macleod, K., Arthos, J. and Fauci, A. (2007) ‘HIV-1 gp120 inhibits TLR9-mediated activation and IFN-ÃŽ ± secretion in plasmacytoid dendritic cells.’ Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 104, pp.3396–3401. Kadowaki, N., Ho, S., Antonenko, S., Malefyt, RW., Kastelein, RA., Bazan, F. and Liu, YJ. (2001) ‘Subsets of human dendritic cell precursors express different toll-like receptors and respond to different microbial antigens.’, J Exp Med, 194 (6), pp.863-870 Lund, J., Sato, A., Akira, S., Medzhitov, R. and Iwasaki, A. (2003) ‘Toll-like receptor 9-mediated recognition of Herpes simplex virus-2 by plasmacytoid dendritic cells.’, J Exp Med., 198 (3), pp. 513-520 Lund, JM., Alexopoulou, L., Sato, A., Karow, M., Adams, NC., Gale, NW., Iwasaki, A. and Flavell, RA. (2004) ‘Recognition of single-stranded RNA viruses by Toll-like receptor 7.’, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 101 (15), pp 5598-5603 Lambert, AA., Gilbert, C., Richard, M., Beaulieu, AD. and Tremblay, MJ. (2008) ‘The C-type lectin surface receptor DCIR acts as a new attachment factor for HIV-1 in dendritic cells and contributes to trans- and cis- infection pathways.’, Blood, 112(4), pp.1299-1307 Jego, G., Palucka, AK., Blanck, JP., Chalouni, C., Pascual, V. and Banchereau, J. (2003) ‘Plasmacytoid dendritic cells induce plasma cell differentiation through type I interferon and interleukin 6.’, Immunity, 19(2), pp.225-234 Litinskiy, MB., Nardelli, B., Hilbert, DM., He, B., Schaffer, A., Casali, P. and Cerutti, A.(2002) ‘DCs induce CD40-independent immunoglobulin class switching through BLyS and APRIL.’, Nat Immunol., 3(9), pp. 822-829 Tezuka, H., Abe, Y., Asano, J., Sato, T., Liu, J., Iwata, M. and Ohteki T. (2011) ‘Prominent role for plasmacytoid dendritic cells in mucosal T cell-independent IgA induction.’, Immunity, 34(2), pp.247-257 Dai, J., Megjugorac, NJ., Amrute, SB. and Fitzgerald-Bocarsly, P. (2004) ‘Regulation of IFN regulatory factor-7 and IFN-alpha production by enveloped virus and lipopolysaccharide in human plasmacytoid dendritic cells.’, J Immunol., 173(3), pp.1535-48 Cerutti A., Qiao, X. and H, B. (2005) ‘Plasmacytoid dendritic cells and the regulation of immunoglobulin heavy chain class switching.’, Immunol Cell Biol., 83(5), pp.554-562 Swingler, S., Zhou, J., Swingler, C., Dauphin,A., Greenough, T., Jolicoeur, P. and Stevenson, M. (2008) ‘Evidence for a pathogenic determinant in HIV-1 Nef involved in B cell dysfunction in HIV/AIDS’, Cell Host Microbe, 4(1), pp. 63-76. Geijtenbeek, TB., Kwon, DS., Torensma, R., van Vliet, SJ., van Duijnhoven, GC., Middel, J., Cornelissen, IL., Nottet, HS., KewalRamani, VN., Littman, DR., Figdor, CG. and van Kooyk ,Y. (2000) ‘DC-SIGN, a dendritic cell-specific HIV-1-binding protein that enhances trans-infection of T cells.’, Cell, 100 (5), pp.587-597. Dedeoglu, F., Horwitz, B., Chaudhuri, J., Alt, FW. and S. Geha, RS. (2004) ‘Induction of activation-induced cytidine deaminase gene expression by IL-4 and CD40 ligation is dependent on STAT6 and NFkB.’, International Immunology, 16(3), pp.395-404 Qiao, X., He, B., Chiu, A., Knowles, DM., Chadburn, A. and Cerutti, A. (2006) ‘Human immunodeficiency virus 1 Nef suppresses CD40-dependent immunoglobulin class switching in bystander B cells.’, Nature Immunology, 7, pp.302-310 JESSIE FLORENCE GHANSAH

The Transformation of Sydney Carton in A Tale of Two Cities :: Tale Two Cities Essays

The Transformation of Sydney Carton in A Tale of Two Cities         Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In Charles Dickens' novel A Tale Of Two Cities, Sydney Carton is a man of several distinct characteristics.   Carton is shown originally to be a frustrated alcoholic, but then turns out to be a very noble and genuine man. Sydney Carton is also shown in the novel to be somewhat immature in his actions and thoughts.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Throughout the book, Sydney Carton does not always act or seem like he is the age that he is.   He is depicted in the novel to be middle-age, perhaps in his mid-forties, yet several times he shows some very immature actions and feelings.   One example is his feelings for Lucie Manette.   Even after Lucie is married to Charles Darnay, whom she loves, Sydney refuses to give up his love for her.   For someone in his mid-forties, this is somewhat an immature action. Had he been more mature, he might have forgotten about Lucie when she was married and found someone else.   Another perhaps less important but very noticeable example is his appearance.   He didn't seem to care what people really thought about him or the way he was dressed, and remained very calm and relaxed, maybe even carefree, most of the time he was in court.   This also gives Sydney Carton an immature appearance in the novel.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   At the beginning of the story and a large part of the novel, Sydney Carton is shown to be a very arrogant, frustrated man with a drinking problem. Several times in the novel he indulged in his drinking to the point of becoming drunk or close to it.   Many times that he is seen, he is drinking wine or has a flask of liquor in his hand.   This may keep him calm or help him to remain composed in the court, but it becomes more to the point of being a necessity or habit.   Also, his drinking causes him to be loose with his tongue when he is with Charles Darnay after the trial, which makes Charles angry with him.   This behavior was very ill-mannered and could have been prevented to give Sydney Carton a better appearance and attitude.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Later in the novel, towards the end, Sydney seems to change his

The Media Dumbs Us Down Essay -- The Dumbing Down of America

The rise of media in our society has many effects on the consumers of the media. Many people propose the question: is this media making us dumber? Today there are a lot more forms of media available to people today. Through the media outlets of television and news, internet and user-generated content, and social media, people have many options as to where they receive their media. As a whole, the mass media dumbs down society, through their attempt to keep up with the changing of times and reach large masses of people. It is up to the consumer of the media what type they want to partake in. How do media compete in such an environment? The only way to compete is to go with it. To become it, and to help it. New forms of mass media is happening, will happen, and will not stop because we are a constantly changing society. The media tries to put a new spin on media that combines older media techniques with a new more advanced form of media that attempts to reach all of society. Even tho ugh they are effective at reaching mass crowds of viewers, and reaching people who may not have ever engaged in issues, they dumb down society by limiting the thoroughness of information presented. The dumbing down is usually applied as a derogatory term that refers to the simplifying of a subject towards the lowest common denominator. Americans consume large amounts of media. The average American spends half or their day watching hours of television, or listening to some sort of mass media. According to Shachtman author of The Inarticulate Society: Eloquence and Culture in America, â€Å"most Americans watch thirty hours of television a week, or 1,550 hours a year, listen to the radio 1, 160 hours a year, spend 180 hours a year reading some part of a ne... ...al_media_stats_kagan_fisch_mcleod Carr, N. (2008, Jul. - Aug.). Is google making us stupid?. The Atlantic, 1. Retrieved February 14, 2012, from http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2008/07/is-google-making-us-stupid/6868/ Shachtman, T. (1995). Extracurricular Educators. The inarticulate society: eloquence and culture in America (pp. 95-142). New York: Free Press. Sommerville, C. J. (1999). How the news makes us dumb: the death of wisdom in an information society. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press. Wolf, M. (2007). Proust and the squid, the story and science of the reading brain. New York, NY: Harpercollins. YDSTIE, J. (2007, June 16). Does the internet undermine culture? : NPR. NPR : National Public Radio : News & Analysis, World, US, Music & Arts : NPR. Retrieved February 10, 2012, from http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=11131872

Hemingway: The Relevance of Biography to Interpretation Essay

Even a cursory examination of the literature addressing Hemingway’s writing and his life can seem overwhelming. The purpose of this paper, however, is to demonstrate that some of Hemingway’s writing can be best understood through reference to his own life experiences. This is not meant to suggest that the text does not at times provide some internal textual evidence regarding the meaning of the piece as a whole, for it most certainly does, but that external biographical evidence must also be considered and weighed when interpreting Hemingway’s work. In this paper it will be suggested that an examination of the external evidence, as it relates to Hemingway’s own life experiences, is particularly relevant to any interpretation of Ten Indians or Hills like White Elephants and that in these short stories a reconciliation of the external biographical evidence with the internal textual evidence may better aid in understanding the stories themselves. Significant Biographical Characteristics: Machismo and Gender Relations In order to better understand Hemingway’s writing it is necessary to know about the man himself and some of the major events and experiences which shaped his thought process. With reference to the short stories specifically addressed in this paper there are two biographical characteristics which seem to aid in efforts to interpret meaning or to otherwise try to make sense of the text. The first biographical characteristic is often referred to as Hemingway’s extremely masculine lifestyle or what some scholars have referred to as his macho orientation. It is well-established among scholars and historians, for instance, that Hemingway thoroughly enjoyed rigorous physical activities and pursuits; it has been noted that Hemingway was known for his â€Å"highly developed skills in such ‘manly’ fields as hunting, fishing, boxing and sailing. ( Harry Sylvester, who used to box with Hemingway frequently, once told me that Hemingway was the strongest man he had ever known. )† (McCaffery 12). He was, in short, an independent-minded writer whom enjoyed physical exertion, challenging himself through a variety of pursuits, and outdoor activities. While some scholars, such as McCaffery, have viewed Hemingway’s manliness in a positive light there are some whom have viewed him in a less flattering light; indeed, as a leading Hemingway scholar has pointed out â€Å"Others view his masculinity as negative machismo. They consider him the worst example of a sexist, racist, homophobic man, and often refuse to read or teach Hemingway, or make apologies when they do. † (Moddelmog 2). Whether loved or hated, therefore, scholars seem to agree on his manliness and his abrasively macho view of life. For purposes of interpretation, this informs us that though a gifted writer, and an artist, Hemingway was not the sort of intellectual that was confined to a library or a desk at home; quite the contrary, unlike many other writers, he actually did live in many respects the very type of life which he wrote about. His were not speculative musings, or romantic idealizations, but reflections and comments on situations and characters with which he was intimately familiar. Any attempt to understand or interpret his written work, therefore, must to some extant take note of Hemingway’s own life experiences and philosophical mind-set.. The second biographical characteristic which can aid in the interpretation of Hemingway’s text more specifically, with respect to Ten Indians and Hills like White Elephants, involves his personal experiences with women and how he dealt with gender issues such as relationships and fatherhood in his writings. Hemingway, to put it mildly, experienced the company of many women and seemed almost forever to have troublesome or difficult relations with the opposite sex. He loved women and yet he seemed to struggle to understand them in reference to his own lifestyle and psychology. Referring to Hills like White Elephants, one researcher has observed that â€Å"the subtle and dramatic dialogue in ‘Hills Like White Elephants’ reveals a clear, sensitive portrait of two strong personalities caught in a pattern of miscommunication due to gender-linked language patterns† (Smiley 92); another researcher, referring to Hemingway’s writing more generally, has argued that he must be understood as a human being whom was never quite comfortable about â€Å"his own failed or failing marital and/or extramarital relations. † (Spilka 299). Gender communication or the lack thereof, particularly that dealing with romantic relationships, is pervasive in Hemingway’s writing and can to some degree be related to his own life. In sum, external biographical evidence is extraordinarily relevant when attempting to interpret Hemingway’s writing and it must be considered alongside the internal textual evidence of each written piece of work. Ten Indians An initial and superficial reading of Hemingway’s Ten Indians suggests a rather common plot in which a young boy falls in love, in which he is subsequently betrayed, and in which innocence is lost or diminished in the process. In the instant story, the protagonist is Nick Adams and he falls in love with a young Indian girl whom he apparently adores and whom he trusts feels the same as he does; the twist is that she has been spotted with another boy and that Nick is forced to confront the betrayal. The betrayal, however, is not easily predicted; it is not easily predicted because Hemingway creates a pleasant setting and a happy family atmosphere within which to develop his more depressing plot. Indeed, the protagonist Nick Adams returns home to his father after spending a happy Fourth of July with his friends the Garners. Over a late meal of cold chicken and huckleberry pie the father, who â€Å"made a big shadow on the kitchen wall,† informs Nick that his Indian girlfriend Prudence Mitchell spent her Fourth of July â€Å"threshing around† in the woods with one Frank Washburn (Carter 103) Everyone had seemed quite happy. The Fourth of July is a joyous occasion for friends and family, and young Nick Adams is in love. Although scholars have debated Hemingway’s intentions, because of different conclusions discovered in preliminary and final drafts of the manuscript, it is true that â€Å"In the final part of the published story, Nick goes into his room after the conversation with his father, gets undressed, and climbs into bed, lying with his face in the pillow and thinking, ‘My heart’s broken†¦. If I feel this way my heart must be broken'† (Nolan n. p. ). Thus, the story would appear to be a familiar one of trust, betrayal, and heartache. Further and more careful readings of the text, however, suggest deeper and, possibly, more metaphorical intentions by Hemingway. If from a superficial point of view the story appears to characterize the fallen world of young love then from a more careful examination of the text, reference to the aforementioned biographical characteristics and the relevant scholarly literature the story may also be said to characterize the fallen world of a man’s sense of orderly nature itself. This notion of metaphor, that the text sets forth a young boy’s broken heart to represent a larger type of destruction, is persuasive given the context in which Hemingway set the story and given the way in which the destruction of the wilderness is simultaneously presented in the text. As an initial matter, it is important to understand that Ten Indians was one of many short stories written by Hemingway which detailed and explored the coming of age of Nick Adams. Some scholars have suggested that the protagonist, Nick Adams, was in many ways a personal reflection of Hemingway’s own coming of age story and that he was an autobiographical figure for Hemingway in certain respects. Indeed, there are several interesting connections between Hemingway’s personal history and the people and places created in the short story, Ten Indians. First, although Hemingway was born in Illinois, it is commonly understood that he considered his spiritual home to be in Michigan. This area served as the setting for this particular short story. Second, he relied upon the local Indians of the region to create some of his important characters; in fact, he drew upon his real life observations of the Ottawa and Ojibwa Indian tribes. Indeed, the Indians and their country had a profound effect on Hemingway’s imagination. From his first attempts at fiction and in his later Nick Adams stories, he would draw upon his experiences at Walloon Lake, using Indian characters and wilderness settings. (Nagel 108) Together, these real life experiences helped Hemingway to create both the setting and many of the main characters for his short stories. In addition to providing inspiration for his setting and characters, there was a deeper conflict which Hemingway’s real-life experiences contributed to his writing design in Ten Indians; more specifically, drawing upon Indian tribes whose lives had become fundamentally changed through close contact and interaction with a different American culture, Hemingway was able to cleverly depict a metaphorical illustration of innocence lost through the betrayal of Nick Adams by the Indian girl. Nick’s innocence, it can be argued, has been destroyed in much the same way as the Indian wilderness. Hemingway lamented the modernization which infringed on the forests of northern Michigan and the parallels between the destruction of the wilderness and the destruction of Nick Adams’ heart are striking. These parallels have been noted by one scholar whom has suggested that: Hemingway shows the wilderness being destroyed and, with the loss of the trees, the end of the Indian way of life. This fallen world is the setting of â€Å"Ten Indians,† a story that centers on the adolescent Nick Adams’s first disappointment in love as he learns that his Indian girlfriend, Prudence Mitchell, has been unfaithful (Nagel 108-109) When examining the text of Ten Indians, therefore, it is important to note these important parallels, Hemingway’s love of nature and his view of man’s place in nature. Literally speaking, Hemingway drew on a familiar and beloved setting and populated much of the story with the type of Indian characters that were well-known to him. Figuratively speaking, or metaphorically speaking, Hemingway managed to link the fallen world of the pristine natural wilderness with the fallen world of a young man’s broken heart. It is against this contextual framework that any analysis of Ten Indians must proceed. This is not meant to suggest that either fallen world was the predominant theme; to be sure, both the text and the scholarly literature would seem to demonstrate that Hemingway found both the destruction of the wilderness and the destruction of a first love as betrayals that would inevitable shatter an individual’s innocence and mark another stage in the coming of age of young boys. A young boy, reconciling the external evidence with the internal evidence, might be better advised enjoying the beauty of the forests than the beauty of insincere wiles of young girls. Hills like White Elephants Although a comparatively short story, Hemingway’s Hills like White Elephants is full of tension and moral dilemma; more specifically, the text appears to suggest that the man and the woman are debating whether the woman should have an abortion and what the implications will be depending on whether the abortion is done or not done. What is most striking, from a textual analysis, is the contrast between the rather relaxed atmosphere or setting and the deeply personal nature of the discussion. On the one hand, for instance, the man and the woman are relaxing at a train station, drinking alcohol, and waiting for a train. This would seem to imply a happy couple, an anticipated journey, and a relationship that will endure at least until the train arrives. These contextual clues, however, are sharply betrayed by the underlying discussion regarding whether the woman, Jig, will undergo an operation to have an abortion. One might anticipate some form of closure, some final decision arrived at by the main characters, but instead Hemingway leaves the reader grasping for answers as the story comes to a conclusion. He leaves them grasping for answers because rather than stating what decision has been made, and whether the American and Jig will actually ever see each other again, Hemingway finishes his story without a definitive declaration in either respect. With respect to the operation for the abortion, the woman states that she is willing to have the operation; the American man, however, doubts her sincerity. The reader is therefore forced to wonder, as the American wonders, whether the woman is agreeing or temporarily attempting to placate her partner and lover. With respect to the relationship itself, the reader desiring a firm and resolute statement is left grasping for straws. This is because, rather than departing on the train to Madrid together as planned, the American places their bags or luggage at different positions on the platform before rejoining Jig. The story then finishes up with the man being suspicious of the woman’s true motives and convictions and with the placement of the bags providing a possible clue that the relationship is doomed. The couple is together and yet the bags are separate; this is where Hemingway leaves his readers and scholars themselves have grappled with both the meaning of the story and the likely outcomes. The scholarly analysis of Hills like White Elephants has traditionally tended to focus upon the use of internal textual clues to determine whether Jig intended to have the operation and the fate of the relationship between Jig and the America; more recently, however, some scholars have begun to analyze whether and to what extant the short story may have been influenced or otherwise inspired by Hemingway’s own life. This bifurcated focus has been summed up, analyzed, and synthesized by one leading Hemingway scholar whom has stated the scholarly emphasis thusly: â€Å"Two recurring themes in analyses of Ernest Hemingway’s ‘Hills Like White Elephants’ are the debate over whether or not Jig will carry her pregnancy to term and the search for biographical experiences that may have inspired and influenced the story. † (Wyche n. p). This section will examine each of these scholarly inquiries in turn. The traditional scholarly interest has involved an examination of the text for clues in order to determine whether an abortion was actually pursued and the fate of the couple. A review of the literature reveals at least four possibilities: Three different scenarios have been seriously considered: the girl will have the abortion (albeit reluctantly) and stay with the man; the girl will have the abortion and leave the man; or, the girl will not have the abortion, having won the man over to her point of view. However, there is strong support in the narrative for a fourth outcome that fits in, with the dark overall prognosis presented in other scholarly interpretations: the girl will indeed have the abortion, expecting in this way to stay on with the man, but after the operation has been performed, he will abandon her. Various verbal and non-verbal indications found in the story support this interpretation of the narrative, as does the very symbolism of the title itself. (Hashmi n. p. ) Although an extended analysis of each scenario is beyond the scope of this paper, a rationale for selecting the most plausible outcome based upon the text is not. The most persuasive outcome would appear to be the fourth; more specifically, a superficial reading of the text suggests that Jig will indeed have an abortion and that the American will abandon her despite her attempt to maintain the relationship. First, the American places their bags in different parts of the platform. Analyzed literally, this seems to suggest that he doubts her sincerity regarding the abortion and that he is preparing for a separation. Second, they stand together and Jig tells the American that despite the strain of the abortion decision she remains fine. The man has made the decision to separate the bags whereas Jig would appear to believe that things will work out in such a way as to maintain the relationship. The man’s actions represent separation whereas Jig’s actions and words represent togetherness. It is therefore plausible to argue that she will pursue togetherness by having the abortion and that the man will pursue separation by encouraging the abortion and then abandoning or otherwise terminating the relationship. Although never explicitly stating such a conclusion, the fourth scenario is supported by the aforementioned textual clues. Other scholars have instead focused on Hemingway’s own life in order to understand the story; in this way, the abortion issue is treated figuratively rather than literally. As one scholar pursuing this biographically-oriented type of analysis explains â€Å"While the figurative abortion in ‘Hills Like White Elephants’ can be understood on the basis of internal evidence, the concept of abortion as metaphor invites consideration of a number of biographical influences on the story,† (Wyche n.  p. ). While such an analysis requires a reconciling of certain parts of the text with information known about Hemingway’s personal life there are interesting parallels. One illustration involves the fact that Hemingway has been reported to have said that the birth of his first child led to the dissolution of his first marriage, that he was at the time too young to have become a father, and that â€Å"the author’s ambivalence toward fatherhood is well-documented† (Wyche, n. p. ). Against this larger framework, comparing the author’s real life with his written work, it may become plausible to argue that the scholarship dealing with the outcomes regarding the abortion and the relationship are in actuality tangential or irrelevant concerns insofar as the author was concerned; more precisely, it might be argued that Hemingway was merely incorporating difficult moments from his own coming of age experience without intending to offer concrete conclusions. In the final analysis, while it is both challenging and interesting to explore what Hemingway may have intended as a conclusion, it is perhaps more enlightening to view Hills like White Elephants as a writer’s reflections about his own past in which firm and absolute conclusions were never intended. Hemingway was placing the reader in his own shoes and asking what the reader might do, what the reader ought to do, in similar circumstances. Such an interpretation is consistent with the biographical data known about Hemingway and makes the story more powerful and personal by forcing the reader to draw his or her own conclusions rather than being force-fed a set of conclusions by the author. Conclusion In conclusion, what makes Hemingway so alluring is that he actually lived the type of life that he wrote about. It is therefore impossible to completely separate his own life from his writing as one might be able to do with other writers. As a consequence, interpretation must necessarily involve a balancing act in which external biographical evidence is weighed and considered alongside the internal textual evidence. It is this interplay, between real life and fiction, that perhaps makes Hemingway appear larger than life.

The Rime of the Ancient Mariner

Death-in-Life means to be living in a constant fear or thought of death, or a feeling that the soul is damned but the body remains. Life-in-Death suggests the idea that the soul will continue but the body will deteriorate. In the poem â€Å"the Rime of the Ancient Mariner† by Samuel Taylor Coleridge, the paradox of death-in-life and life-in-death is a consistent theme throughout this piece of literature. The sailor’s corpses, the constant aging of the mariner’s body and the gamble of death and life suggest this theme in Coleridge’s poem.When a person’s heart stops pumping blood, the average amount of time for the body to start decomposing is four to six days. This average is dependent upon the temperature the body is kept; if it is hot and in the sun the body will decompose much faster than in colder climates. In Coleridge’s poem the sailor’s bodies are in the sun for seven days, yet they refuse to be subjected to the ravages of time. â€Å"The many men so beautiful / and they all dead did lie / and a thousand thousand slimy things lived on; / and so did I / †¦The cold sweat melted from their limbs / nor rot or reek did they: / the look with which they looked on me / had never passed away / †¦ Seven days, seven nights, / I saw that curse and yet could not die† (Coleridge, IV, 1817). The sailor’s corpses stay intact while their souls escape, leaving the mariner with the visible token of the living death that awaits. The wedding Guest proclaims to fear the Mariner because he looks so skinny and aged. â€Å"I fear thee and thy glittering eye, / And thy skinny hand, so brown. Fear not, fear not, thou Wedding-Guest! / This body dropt not down. / Alone, alone, all, all alone, / Alone on a wide wide sea! / And never a saint took pity on / My soul in agony† (Coleridge, IV, 1817). The Mariner explains that his soul is trapped in his body and his body will continue to age but will never rot e nough to release his spirit. In â€Å"the Rime of the Ancient Mariner† the Mariner explains to the Wedding Guest of how his soul came to be doomed. He explains that when he was on the ship with his crew that he saw another ship approaching.This brought hope to the whole crew because they thought that their bodies were going to be saved. When the ship approached, the Mariner saw that it was Death and Life-in-Death. â€Å"Her lips were red, her looks were free, / Her locks were yellow as gold: / Her skin was as white as leprosy, / The Night-mare Life-in-Death was she, / Who thicks man's blood with cold. / The naked hulk alongside came, / And the twain were casting dice; / ‘The game is done! I've won! I've won! ‘ / Quoth she, and whistles thrice† (Coleridge, III, 1817).With Life-in-Death’s three whistles she eliminates the sunlight and replaces it with dark shadows. She took the lives of the men on the ship, except for that of the Mariner’s. She cursed him with an eternity of living death. He is condemned to walk to the Earth and tell his tale to whomever will listen. The symbolic interpretation when death and life in death went to steal the Mariner’s soul; is that of arriving on a ship, when in biblical terms wood means death and water means life.Life in death ironically wins the soul of the mariner. In â€Å"the Rime of the Ancient Mariner† by Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Death in Life and Life in Death is a constant contradicting theme throughout this metaphorical anecdote. The mythical preservation of the sailor’s bodies, the damnation of the Mariner’s soul, and the gamble between death and life-in-death truly remind the audience of this continuous theme.Works Citedhttp://poetry.eserver.org/ancient-mariner.html

Envirofit Company Essay

1. It is appropriate to consider Envirofit to be a social enterprise because their main focus is innovation, risk taking, and large-scale transformation to solve social problems. Envirofit is doing so by bringing sustainable clean energy solution to solve health and energy challenges on a global level at the lowest possible cost. They are combining resources while exploring and exploiting opportunities to create social value by stimulating social change or meeting social needs. They are meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet that need. In this case the need is clean air. Envirofit’s approach to shared value is to make a difference by focusing on energy and pollution reduction, and health and economic improvement. They wanted to create and economical value and also create value for society by addressing its needs and challenges. Envirofit hoped to reduce pollution by developing commercializing a retrofit kit that dramatic ally reduced emissions in dirty two-stroke carbureted motorcycle engines. Their approach was to transform their business thinking, recognizing societal weaknesses and create a way of solving both. The social problem Envirofit is attempting to solve is air pollution while increasing the income of the drivers through increased fuel mileage. Envirofit offer it’s investors a good reputation and a triple bottom line by giving them the chance to go beyond the traditional measures of profit but also include environmental and social dimensions. They would be more focused on profits, people, and the planet instead of just profits. 2. The Envirofit’s two stroke motorcycle engine conversion kit described as being targeted at the â€Å"base of the pyramid† because the taxi drivers are considered micro-entrepreneurs; using the small amount of money they earn to support their families. They typically earn $3-$5 per day after all their expenses. These drivers are in the largest and poorest socioeconomic group. The impact this has on Envirofit’s business model is that it would be challenging to find ways so that the drivers can purchase the kit at a reasonable price. It would be challenging to come up with a business model that would meet their triple bottom line objectives, allow for scalability, and provide the ability to raise start-up capital. The factors that they need to take into consideration include: the market, the customer, and the competition. 3. One of the biggest obstacles to be overcome would be  developing a business model that would enable them to sell to customers in base of the pyramid markets and meet their triple bottom line objectives. Finding a way that motorcycle drivers could afford the projected price of the kit ($220), which is a significant money to the drivers because they make less than five dollars a day, little money saved, and little access to commercial credit. They would also need to learn the market, manufacturing, finance, regulatory, and cultural issues that the venture would face. Another obstacle is to provide a kit that would be commercially available, durable, and reliable. It also needs to have less power draw on the motorcycle and easy and inexpensive to install. 4. If I was offered the opportunity to join the venture as one of its key members, I would evaluate the long term impact of the venture. If it’s something that has the potential to make significant changes in the environment especially in third-world countries, I would definitely accept the offer. From what I read, it all sounds like a great plan but it needs lots of work and effort and I would definitely make the sacrifice because I think it would pay off in the long run. 5. I would look for start-up capital among the members of the ventures before looking anywhere else. It is very important for the members to invest first that way they can show potential investors that they are serious about their venture. I would also turn to nonprofit organizations and large corporations that are interested in making profits as well as helping the environment.

The Movie Patriot A Piece Of History Film Studies Essay

The first thing I would state about the film is that about everyone watches the film. Peoples watch all types of film including action films, escapade films, comedy films, and many other classs, but when it comes to the history films, people do non believe if the narrative of the history film is a genuinely based on our existent history or it is merely filled with clump of fiction. Peoples normally guestimate that every history film is a portion of a existent history but the world is that about every individual history film contains at least small spot of fiction in it to do it great narrative and to maintain the audience ‘s attending. Traveling on to the chief point, to turn out it incorrect that non every history film is genuinely a portion of the existent history, I watched the film called the Patriot and in this paper I will compare the narrative of the Patriot with existent history to calculate out if the film contains a true narrative of history or is merely a filled with fiction. Let me get down my giving brief sum-up of the film Patriot. This film is about Benjamin Martin who was male parent of seven kids and he declines an offer to contend for the Continental ground forces. However, as shortly the conflict land reaches his front pace and accordingly plenty his 15 old ages old boy named Thomas is killed by Colonel Tavington who was the chief opposition. In consequence of this, Benjamin joins the ground forces and creates his private ground forces of shred ticket husbandmans and farmworkers. His ground forces ‘s chief end was to maintain General Cornwallis in the province of South Carolina by strategically cutting down his supply and ground forces. Their advancement were effectual nevertheless, subsequently in the narrative Martin ‘s another boy named Gabriel became victim to the same colonel that killed his oldest boy Thomas. This causes a last conflict in the film between Martin and Tavington. And at the terminal of this conflict, Martin kills T avington which besides helps led the Continental ground forces to triumph. ( prezi.com ) In the film, during the scene of the last conflict it shows that soldiers were keeping up the several American flags but in world, the huge bulk of the flags used by the Continental ground forces represented where their reserves is from. Another scene in which Benjamin is giving a shop clerk a money in which you can see that he is giving five dollar note with Abraham Lincoln on it and this can non be true because this film took topographic point more than eighty old ages before he was elected as a president. Besides that during the clip of American Revolution work forces normally saluted by taking their chapeau off and take downing their chapeau to the side, so they would set it back on. While in the film, Gabriel merely salutes by seting his manus on his chapeau. In the film all the Continental soldiers seem to hold same outfits and the British are firing down a church which is full of people. While in the world everyone in the Continental ground forces had really different vesture and there has ne'er been found a historical record which showed that British burned the church. ( prezi.com ) In the film there are many factual mistakes. For illustration, in the beginning of the narrative, during the town hall meeting Burwell was stating that we killed 700 of enemy at the Bunker Hill and they were merely kept coming, but in world they killed 226 of them. Besides harmonizing to the book Down and Out in Early America, it was highly impossible in the 1776 that a southern plantation proprietor could easy run a successful plantation which run by free work forces who worked by rewards. It would be about impossible to compare this plantation proprietor which person who used slaved as the work force. Besides that Benjamin Martin seems to be a rules adult male in the film but in world he killed Indians merely for merriment and was known for knaping his slaves. Therefore, I would state that all of these things did non look or they changed it merely to do Benjamin Martin good character in the film respect less of world. In one scene Benjamin Martin shoots a British troop who was on t he traveling Equus caballus utilizing a firelock gun at the scope of about 100 paces. It clearly seems bogus because slug from pulverization gun would non go this much of distance besides that going of this much distance and hitting traveling mark would be really hard with modern guns. ( sbroome ) In the film, Lord Cornwallis is portrayed as really old adult male, which is wrong because during the clip frame of this film in 1780, General Charles Lord Cornwallis was in his mid-fortiess. To be more descriptive, based on my research I found that Cornwallis was born in London on December 31, 1738 and harmonizing to that twelvemonth he would be six old ages younger than George Washington. Traveling to the following point, in the scene where auntie Charlotte takes in the kids after their household place was burned and destroyed, her hair was down. My point is that during the clip frame of the film, adult females merely wore hair down merely during illness or bedtime. Women ever pinned up their hair during the twenty-four hours and eventide, while they were out in the universe therefore, I would state that they this is clear fiction. ( About.com ) In the conflict scene where Benjamin is watching through the farmhouse ‘ window and we can see that Redcoats bayonet charge the Rebels. The soldiers ran across several hundred paces of unfastened land while Redcoat ground forces was good trained ground forces. During that clip military personnels were really of import therefore it was non good thought that parts of the military personnels would merely running about across the battleground. In world, they would hold charged Bayonets and travel towards the enemy. When they are about 50 paces away they would hold marched rapidly and decelerate sufficiency to stay a line. This would treat would do possible to hold control over way in the instance where needed to alter or to call off the order. And when the military personnels reach really near so military personnels could prosecute the enemy. ( sbroome ) In another scene in which Gabriel returns to the Martin plantation with blade lesion from Battle of the Waxhaws, he said that Gates ordered them to process heterosexual at the lobsterbacks. In world, Gates was non present nor the commanding officer at the conflict of Waxhaws. Furthermore, they were processing off when the British attacked. ( sbroome ) In this film, I would state that they tried to flim-flam us, when the British housebreaking to the Charlotte ‘s plantation, Tavington was seeking for the kid that was concealing under the tabular array and when Tavington looks beneath the tabular array to look into if anyone is concealing under or non and at the same clip, Nathan moved out from the underneath the tabular array on the right side and Tavington did non see him. The tablecloth on the table bents several inches from the floor so when Tavington tried to look child under the tabular array he should hold seen the Nathan from the spread that was between the tabular array fabric and floor but he did non saw the kid. Based on this point, it is clear that in this film they tried to flim-flam audience. ( sbroome ) The concluding conflict in the film is the conflict of Cowpens and it seems really large conflict while in world, merely 12 American died and was largely cavalry matter and it was all over in less than an hr. During this conflict there was scene in which cannon ball comes from enemy side and it rolls on the land and cuts the leg off of a figure of soldiers in its way, in which we can clearly see that one of the soldier ‘s leg falls apart good before the ball even touch his leg. Besides in this conflict Tavington and Martin seems contending where Martin foremost attack Tavington with a indicating tool on the terminal of the musket. And he besides attacks into Tavington ‘s pharynx right after first onslaught and we can see that Tavington was falling on the land but in the following onslaught we can see him still standing. The last scene was really confounding so it was difficult to do sense. ( sbroome ) During the American Revolution British were the Masterss of the sea. But in the film they had played with natural Torahs. During the scene of party where we can see that British ship was blown up in the seaport. But the Torahs of natural philosophies describe that behind each action there is an equal and the opposite reaction. When the ship was targeted and destroyed we see the large detonation with fire distributing all over the ship. However, although there was detonation on the ship, ship remains in its original place in the H2O therefore, it did non moved side to side or drop in the H2O it is impossible because based on natural philosophies jurisprudence ship should hold been moved or sunk in the H2O. As we can find that some of the scenes were non accurate hence, there is no drouth that narrative of this film would include fiction. ( Marts.com ) I besides figured geographical mistake in the film, in the scene in which Benjamin and his two of the younger boies were running and go throughing through the forests to disrupt the British who captured their older brother. They seem leaping and concealing around the stones to acquire in place. While in South Carolina it was ne'er glaciated in the portion of the country where this narrative took topographic point. In another scene where Tavington is looking for Martin ‘s kids at the Charlotte ‘s plantation, Susan seem to look out the window covered with Venetian blind. The Venetian blinds was non invented until the 1800s or approximately 100 twelvemonth after the timeframe of the film. To be more descriptive, the recorded innovation of blinds is holds by adult male from Chile named Hernando de Venuto and it was invented on May 20, 1857. ( sbroome ) About every knows that slaves did non like white people during the clip of revolution or any clip during the bondage hence, in the one scene after their place was destroyed, Benjamin Martin direct his household and his friend ‘s household to a slave settlement and they were welcomed at that place and had small jubilation at that place in the consequence of arriving of Benjamin Martin ‘s household. My point is that they should non hold been welcomed to their settlement because during that clip there were really few slaves settlements existed and ointments did non liked the white people. ( chccs.k12.nc.us ) In decision, I would state that even though the film Patriot include many fictional narrative in it but the manager of this film did many of the turn in the existent history to do it look more interesting to audiences and do narrative retrieve. This film besides gives audiences at least small spot of experiencing about American Revolution war. Although I found many mistakes in the film it contains really of import portion of our history and by watching this film, people can larn more about our history and seek to retrieve it as our yesteryear.